botany

Overall, I was not too impressed with Botany in a Day because it was way too dry with only black & white pictures. I couldn't do much mental mapping to what the flowers would actually look like. Perhaps its for someone more advanced. But I'm going to turn it in for a more colorful book.

On the plus side, I've learned about some cool plants. Like the Monkshood, which might be the most poisonous plant in the States.

It belongs to the Buttercup family. It is a well known poison, and in older times in Europe, warriors would put it at the end of their spears. It also is used in crimes.

Also, Anemone, another in the buttercup family.

And, the Columbine flower

Some interesting things I did make note of were the components of a plant. What we consider "medicinal" properties of a plant, are also conversely "poisonous". This is when we are treating disease with another complementary disease.

• Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)

• Disaccharides (two sugars, ie Sucrose = glucose+fructose; Maltose = glucose + glucose)

• Polysaccharides (many sugars; we often cannot digest these, proving our reliance on simple sugars )

• Cellulose is a structural component of plants. white paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose

• Starches also fall in here which are a group that can be broken down by enzymes called amylases which we have some of)

• Inulin is an indigestible carbohydrate that often feeds our gut bacteria, thus creating lots of gas. it is usually in a plants roots or seeds. but it can be converted to fructose by extended heating. I am against eating this as it seems clear our bodies are not designed to eat this. Common sources are dandelion, wild yam, jerusalem artichoke, chicory, jicama, chicory, burdock, mugwort, onion, garlic, agave ... generally roots.

• Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) have essentially the same effects as inulin, as they are similar in structure. Read more about why these substances feed intestinal bacteria and damage your gut.

• Mucilage is a thick, gluey substance found in aloe vera, cacti, okra, chia, flax seeds, and psyllium. These substances are often labelled demulcents. They are said to "soothe" mucous membranes as they coat them and relieve inflammation. But as inflammation is a healing process, they also can be seen as suffocating the membranes and creating a breeding & feeding ground for bacteria.

• Pectin is found in the cell walls of plants, and is generally safe and goes through the digestive system intact. During ripening, it is degraded down within the fruit.

• Gums are used as binding, thickening, or adhesive agents and are found in the woody parts of a plant or in seed coatings. Ie Agar agar or gum arabic or guar gum. Not parts of the plant humans typically eat.

On Starch and Glycogen

Starch is used by plants to store long chains of glucose, and its analogue in humans and animals is called glycogen. We do not store starch within ourselves. We break down any starch we may eat into simple sugars, and then store it as glycogen.

There are two ways humans store energy - fat and glycogen.

Glycogen is less compact than fat, but can be more quickly mobilized. It is a more immediate source of energy. It is stored in the liver and muscles.

When the body eats sugar or carbs, the blood absorbs glucose which then travels through the portal vein from the intestines to the liver. The pancreas secretes insulin into the blood and thus informs the liver cells to start building glycogen, which are enormously long chains of glucose.

After the meal, as insulin and glucose levels decrease, the creation of glycogen stops. For the next 8-12 hours, glycogen is the primary source of blood glucose used by the body for fuel.

Muscle cells also store a bit of glucose for their own internal use. They do not release glucose back into the blood as that is the function of the liver.

Similar to us, plants do not want to store glucose as is. It is soluble in water and thus binds to it, and takes up much space. Instead, starch is insoluble in water and is compact. Similar to glycogen, they are bound by easily hydrolyzed alpha bonds.

• Glycosides are molecules in which a sugar (glycone) is bound to a non-carbohydrate moiety (a-glycone). Plants use this form to store chemicals (a-glycone) and thereby making them inactive. This is also a way to stabilize a poison. Animals and humans add sugars to poisons (a-glycone) and then eliminate them. The a-glycone must be separated from the sugar to become active. Crushing the plant in warm water is often enough. (Its own enzymes come into play). Generally the plant releases these if attacked or ground by a predators teeth.

• Alcoholic - ie Salicin found in willow bark, which gets converted in the body to salicylic acid, closely related to aspirin - anti-inflammatory

• Anthraquinone - Senna, rhubarb, aloe. laxative effect, "griping" effect on the bowels. often fat-soluble and digested by bile and expelled by large intestine.

• Coumarin - found in the roots of the Angelica plants. can dilate the coronary arteries and block calcium absorption. found in sweet clover, indian breadroot, and many members of the parsley family. When coagulants they destroy vitamin K, reducing blood clotting; excessive consumption causes internal bleeding. Used in rat poison. Other types can make skin sensitive to sunlight (celery leaves).

• Cyanogenic - contains a cyanide group. Reacts with the enzyme cytochrome oxidase which normally links oxygen to individual cells. The cyanide interrupts this and causes the cells to asphyxiate. The body can handle trace amounts by adding a molecule of sulfur to create thiocyanate. But is a poison in excess.

  Ie Amygdalin which is found in crushed apricot pits. The metabolism of which produces hydrogen cyanide, a potent toxin.

• Flavonoid - the a-glycogen is a flavonoid. They are all known as anti-oxidants but have complicated interactions. ie Hesperidin in citrus fruits is anti-inflammatory and might act on the opioid receptors. Naringin gives grapefruit its bitter taste. Rutin is also found in citrus, asparagus, buckwheat, mulberries, etc. They are often used as dyes and are the reason for the changing color of the leaves. (flavonoids hidden by chlorophyll until the fall). They are toxic to mico-organisms and plants use them to fight infection.

  Anti-oxidants are chemicals that supply ample negative charge to cells which are in dearth of it. Free radicals are these cells that try to neutralize themselves by taking a negative charge from the oxygen molecules within the cells.

  Rich in fruits and vegetables.

• Simple Phenol - ie Arbutin from bearberry. Used as a skin-lightener because it inhibits tyrosinase and so prevents melanin from forming. sounds fundamentally risky.

• Cardiac - stimulate heart contractions. Digitalis of the Figwort family; Convallaria of Lily family; Helleborus and Adonis from the Buttercup family. Have a diuretic effect because through increased heart function, poisons release more easily. Very dangerous.

• Saponin - these substances cause the rupturing of red blood cells. A poison that is not usually absorbed. Found in spinach, beans and tomatoes. Breaks down with prolonged cooking. Can be used instead of soap. Good at wiping off dirt but not oils; such as yucca root, buckbrush, snowberries, bouncing bet..) In licorice, ginseng too.

• Steviol - responsible for "sweet" taste in the Stevia plant.

• Thioglycosides - contain nitrogen and sulfur. Are acrid and irritating to the area applied, stimulating circulation there. Ie stimulating digestion. Are responsible for pungent taste of mustard plant. It is the result of crushing the plant, indicating that this is a possible defensive mechanism of the plant.

• Tannins - Polyphenol that binds to proteins, amino acids, and alkaloids. Most common reason for the astringent taste. You run out of saliva because your tissues constrict and reject the food. Then after eating, one gets a diuretic effect. Occurs after the consumption of unripe fruit or red wine.

  There are two types - Hydrolyzable Tannins (Tannic Acid) and Non-Hydrolyzable. The former is broken down by water and is used in tanning leather. Commonly found in oak bark and heartwood. The heartwood is susceptible to bacterial invasion so tannins are toxins that prevent it from this. The tree uses the newer wood, which lies on the outer rims of the trunk (think of how the rims indicate age) to transport water and nutrients, leaving the inside mainly for structure. Both types are stored carefully in the plant to not hurt itself.

  The latter is found in tea, pomegranate seeds, grape seeds and skins. This we are more likely to ingest. These end up in wine.

  They "inhibit herbivore digestion by binding to consumed plant proteins and making them more difficult for animals to digest, and by interfering with protein absorption and digestive enzymes (for more on that topic, see plant defense against herbivory)."

  They are often in unripe fruit, but disappear once the fruit is ripe. They exist in nuts that can be eaten raw such as hazelnuts, walnuts, and pecans and are the reason we cannot eat raw acorns. They are present in various spices like cloves, tarragon, vanilla, cinnamon, cumin and thyme.

  They are generally known to be anti-nutritional and symptoms of overdose are ataxia (poor muscle coordination) and shortness of breath. They can inhibit the absorption of minerals, particularly iron. Thus it is recommended to drink tea or coffee between meals. Foods rich in Vitamin C can help counterbalance this effect on iron absorption.

• Acids
• Tannic Acid - see Tannins
• Oxalic Acid - most plants that are rich in oxalic acid are also rich in calcium. They bind together in the digestive tract and are excreted. Though oxalic acid inhibits the absorption of calcium, calcium can also be seen as protecting the oxalic acid from being absorbed. Generally this is an irritating substance which stimulates digestive secretions.
• Citric and Tartaric Acid - the former is found in citrus, fruits of members of the Rose family, and raspberries. Both cleanse the mouth and reduce bacterial infection.
• Formic Acid - a defense mechanism used by ants and stinging nettles. Irritant when injected under the skin.
  
  
• Acrids - in mustard, radish, horseradish. Have a bitter, hot sensation when eaten.

• Latex is "found in nature is a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms). It is a complex emulsion consisting of proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins, and gums that coagulates on exposure to air."

  Latex is used as a defensive mechanism of plants. "Other evidence is that latex contains 50–1000 higher concentrations of defense substances than other plant tissues. These toxins include ones that are also toxic to the plant and consist of a diverse range of chemicals that are either poisonous or "antinutritive"."

  It should be noted that latex though latex is released when the bark is lightly cut, it is not the same as sap. "The sap runs deeper inside the tree, beneath the cambium. Latex runs in the latex ducts which are in a layer immediately outside the cambium."

  It can be made into rubber with vulcanization or by mixtures with substances like morning glory seeds. (This is how the ancient mayans made bouncy balls.)

• Alkaloids - nitrogen containing molecules that have a very basic pH. When going through accelerated growth, the plant produces more alkaloids which are all throughout the plant, particularly in the sap. There are over 5,000 types known. Many produce a strong reaction in the nervous system.
  
  
• Indole alkaloids
• Quinoline alkaloids
• Isoquinoline alkaloids
• Purine alkaloids
• Pyrrolidine and Tropane alkaloids
• Pyridine and Piperdine alkaloids
• Pyrrolizidine and Quinolizidine alkaloids
• Terpenoid alkaloids
  
  
• Volatile or Essential Oils
  
  
• Alcohol
• Aldehydes
• Coumarins
• Esters
• Ethers
• Ketones
• Oxides
• Phenols
• Sulfurs
• Terpenes
• Resins
• Bitters
• Gelatin
  

Eeck! I will have to finish the rest another time :)